Community Health Workers as Trust Builders and Healers: A Cohort Study in Primary Care.

PURPOSE: Improving patients' self-care for chronic disease is often elusive in the context of social deprivation. We evaluated whether a practice-integrated community health worker (CHW) intervention could encourage effective long-term self-management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). METHODS: This cohort study, in a safety-net primary care practice, enrolled patients with uncontrolled T2DM and psychosocial risk factors. Patients were identified through a practice diabetes registry or by clinicians' referrals. The CHWs engaged patients in trust building and sensemaking to understand their social context, identify goals, navigate health care, and connect to community resources. Primary outcome was progress through 3 prospectively defined stages of self-care: outreach (meeting face-to-face); stabilization (collaborating to address patients' life circumstances); and self-care generativity (achieving self-care competencies). Secondary outcomes were change in hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) and need for urgent care, emergency department, or hospital visits. RESULTS: Of 986 participating patients, 27% remained in outreach, 41% progressed to stabilization, and 33% achieved self-care generativity. Repeated measures ANOVA demonstrates an overall decline in HbA1c, without group differences, through the 4th HbA1c measurement (mean follow-up 703 days). Beginning at the 5th HbA1c measurement (mean 859 days), the self-care generativity group achieved greater declines in HbA1c, which widened through the 10th measurement (mean 1,365 days) to an average of 8.5% compared with an average of 8.8% in the outreach group and 9.0% in the stabilization group (P = .003). Rates of emergency department and hospital visits were lower in the self-care generativity group. CONCLUSIONS: Practice-linked CHWs can sustainably engage vulnerable patients, helping them advance self-management goals in the context of formidable social disadvantage.

Bootstrapping implementation research training: A successful approach for academic health centers.

Demand for building competencies in implementation research (IR) outstrips supply of training programs, calling for a paradigm shift. We used a bootstrap approach to leverage external resources and create IR capacity through a novel 2-day training for faculty scientists across the four Texas Clinical & Translational Science Awards (CTSAs). The Workshop combined internal and external expertise, targeted nationally established IR competencies, incorporated new National Institutes of Health/National Cancer Institute OpenAccess online resources, employed well-known adult education principles, and measured impact. CTSA leader buy-in was reflected in financial support. Evaluation showed increased self-reported IR competency; statewide initiatives expanded. The project demonstrated that, even with limited onsite expertise, it was possible to bootstrap resources and build IR capacity de novo in the CTSA community.

Provider-Related Linkages Between Primary Care Clinics and Community-Based Senior Centers Associated With Diabetes-Related Outcomes.

The Institute of Medicine (IOM) suggests that linkages between primary care practices and community-based resources can improve health in lower income and minority patients, but examples of these are rare. We conducted a prospective, mixed-methods observational study to identify indicators of primary care-community linkage associated with the frequency of visits to community-based senior centers and improvements in diabetes-related outcomes among 149 new senior center members (72% Hispanic). We used semistructured interviews at baseline and 9-month follow-up, obtaining visit frequency from member software and clinical assessments including hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) from colocated primary care clinics. Members' discussion of their activities with their primary care providers (PCPs) was associated with increased visits to the senior centers, as well as diabetes-related improvements. Direct feedback from the senior centers to their PCPs was desired by the majority of members and may help to reinforce use of community resources for self-management support.

Patient Experience in an Era of Primary Care Transformation: Revisiting the PACIC.

RATIONALE: Aims and Objective: The validation study of the Patient Assessment of Chronic Illness Care (PACIC) questionnaire suggested a 5-factor structure determined a priori, but subsequent analyses have questioned the validity of the original factor structure. This study analyzed the factor structure of the PACIC using a large and diverse patient sample, and evaluated the identified factors through the lens of recent transformational initiatives in primary care. METHODS: Convenience samples of adults completed surveys in waiting rooms during clinic visits. Primary care patients with 1 or more chronic illnesses with complete PACIC responses at baseline from 39 clinics (n=1,567) and at follow-up from 36 clinics (n=1,536) participated. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were conducted on baseline and follow-up patient questionnaire data from a cluster randomized controlled trial. Identified factors were evaluated in terms of item loadings, content, reliability, and the extent to which items reflected advances in the delivery of chronic illness care. RESULTS: Analyses supported the use of the PACIC summary score. Although a 5-factor model was retained, factor loadings were different from the original PACIC validation study. All factors had sufficient reliability, but findings suggested potential revisions to enhance the factor structure. CONCLUSIONS: It may be time to revise the PACIC to enhance the stability of the subscales (factors) and better reflect recent transformations in the delivery of chronic illness care.

Key activities used by community based primary care practices to improve the quality of diabetes care in response to practice facilitation.

BACKGROUND: A recent systematic review suggests that practice facilitation (PF) is a robust intervention for implementing evidence-based preventive care guidelines in primary care, but the ability of PF to improve chronic illness care remains unclear. AIMS: To examine the specific activities and Chronic Care model (CCM) components that primary care practices implemented and sustained in response to a 12-month PF intervention. METHODS: The ABC trial tested the effectiveness of PF to improve care for diabetes in 40 small community-based primary care practices that were randomized to "initial" or "delayed" intervention arms. A trained facilitator met with each practice over 12-months. Facilitators used interactive consensus building to help practices implement one or more of quality improvement activities based on the CCM. Facilitators prospectively recorded implementation activities reported by practice teams during monthly meetings and confirmed which of these were sustained at the end of the intervention. RESULTS: 37 practices implemented and sustained a total of 43 unique activities [range 1-15, average 6.5 (SD=2.9)]. The number (%) of practices that implemented 1 or more key activities in each CCM component varied: Patient Self-Management Support: 37 (100%); Clinical Information Systems: 24 (64.9%), Delivery System Design: 14 (37.8%), Decision Support: 13 (35.1%), Community Linkages: 2 (5.4%); Healthcare System Support: 2 (2.7%). The majority of practices (59%) only implemented activities from 1 or 2 CCM components. The number of sustained activities was associated with the number of PF visits, but not with practice characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: In spite of the PF intervention, it was difficult for these small practices to implement comprehensive CCM changes. Although practices implemented and sustained a remarkable number and variety of key activities, the majority of these focused on patient self-management support, as opposed to other components of the CCM, such as clinical information systems, decision support, delivery system redesign, and community linkages.

The importance of relational coordination and reciprocal learning for chronic illness care within primary care teams.

BACKGROUND: Recent research from a complexity theory perspective suggests that implementation of complex models of care, such as the Chronic Care Model (CCM), requires strong relationships and learning capacities among primary care teams. PURPOSES: Our primary aim was to assess the extent to which practice member perceptions of relational coordination and reciprocal learning were associated with the presence of CCM elements in community-based primary care practices. METHODOLOGY/APPROACH: We used baseline measures from a cluster randomized controlled trial testing a practice facilitation intervention to implement the CCM and improve risk factor control for patients with Type 2 diabetes in small primary care practices. Practice members (i.e., physicians, nonphysician providers, and staff) completed baseline assessments, which included the Relational Coordination Scale, Reciprocal Learning Scale, and the Assessment of Chronic Illness Care (ACIC) survey, along with items assessing individual and clinic characteristics. To assess the association between Relational Coordination, Reciprocal Learning, and ACIC, we used a series of hierarchical linear regression models accounting for clustering of individual practice members within clinics and controlling for individual- and practice-level characteristics and tested for mediation effects. FINDINGS: A total of 283 practice members from 39 clinics completed baseline measures. Relational Coordination scores were significantly and positively associated with ACIC scores (Model 1). When Reciprocal Learning was added, Relational Coordination remained a significant yet notably attenuated predictor of ACIC (Model 2). The mediation effect was significant (z = 9.3, p < .01); 24% of the association between Relational Coordination and ACIC scores was explained by Reciprocal Learning. Of the individual- and practice-level covariates included in Model 3, only the presence of an electronic medical record was significant; Relational Coordination and Reciprocal Learning remained significant independent predictors of ACIC. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Efforts to implement complex models of care should incorporate strategies to strengthen relational coordination and reciprocal learning among team members.

Use of obesity-related care by psychiatric patients.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to assess receipt of obesity care by patients with and without mental illness. METHODS: The sample consisted of 254,051 obese primary care patients surviving through fiscal year (FY) 2006. Administrative data for Veterans Health Administration (VHA) patients who were obese in FY 2002 (body mass index ≥30) and received primary care in one of six selected VHA regions were included. Outcomes were receipt of obesity care and weight loss during FY 2002-FY 2006. Covariates included baseline mental illness (major depression, posttraumatic stress disorder, and substance use disorders; ICD-9-CM codes 290-311); psychotropic medications associated with weight gain; comorbidity; and demographic characteristics. RESULTS: Most patients were male (95%), non-Hispanic white (80%), older than 50 (mean±SD=61±12) with comorbid hypertension (65%) and dyslipidemia (50%). One-fifth (20%) had mental illness, primarily depression (8%) or posttraumatic stress disorder (6%). Ten percent of the sample lost weight, and 7% gained ≥10% from baseline weight). Although one-third (34%) received obesity care during the study period, receipt of this care was more common among patients with psychiatric diagnoses (46% versus 31%). In multivariable analysis, psychiatric patients prescribed obesogenic psychotropic medications were more likely than other patients to receive obesity care (interaction effect). CONCLUSIONS: VHA efforts to help obese patients manage their weight appeared more common for patients prescribed obesogenic psychotropic medication, especially those with psychiatric diagnoses. The results of this study represent an unusual example in which psychiatric patients were relatively more likely to receive care addressing cardiometabolic risk factors.

Transition from military to VHA care: psychiatric health services for Iraq/Afghanistan combat-wounded.

OBJECTIVE: Veterans from the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq (OEF/OIF) report high rates of mental distress especially affective disorders. Ensuring continuity of care across institutions is a priority for both the Department of Defense (DoD) and the Veterans Health Administration (VHA), yet this process is not monitored nor are medical records integrated. This study assessed transition from DoD to VHA and subsequent psychiatric care of service members traumatically injured in OEF/OIF. METHODS: Inpatients at a DoD trauma treatment facility discharged in FY02-FY06 (n=994) were tracked into the VHA via archival data (n=216 OEF/OIF veterans). Mental health utilization in both systems was analyzed. RESULTS: VHA users were 9% female, 15% Hispanic; mean age 32 (SD=10; range 19-59). No DoD inpatients received diagnoses of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD); 21% had other mental health diagnoses, primarily drug abuse. In the VHA, 38% sought care within 6 months of DoD discharge; 75% within 1 year. VHA utilization increased over time, with 88-89% of the transition cohort seeking care in FY07-FY09. Most accessed VHA mental health services (81%) and had VHA psychiatric diagnoses (71%); half met criteria for depression (27%) or PTSD (38%). Treatment retention through FY09 was significantly greater for those receiving psychiatric care: 98% vs 62% of those not receiving psychiatric care (x(2)=53.3; p<.001). LIMITATIONS: DoD outpatient data were not available. The study relied on administrative data. CONCLUSIONS: Although physical trauma led to hospitalization in the DoD, high rates of psychiatric disorders were identified in subsequent VHA care, suggesting delay in development or recognition of psychiatric problems.

VHA Corporate Data Warehouse height and weight data: opportunities and challenges for health services research.

Within the Veterans Health Administration (VHA), anthropometric measurements entered into the electronic medical record are stored in local information systems, the national Corporate Data Warehouse (CDW), and in some regional data warehouses. This article describes efforts to examine the quality of weight and height data within the CDW and to compare CDW data with data from warehouses maintained by several of VHA's regional groupings of healthcare facilities (Veterans Integrated Service Networks [VISNs]). We found significantly fewer recorded heights than weights in both the CDW and VISN data sources. In spite of occasional anomalies, the concordance in the number and value of records in the CDW and the VISN warehouses was generally 97% to 99% or greater. Implausible variation in same-day and same-year heights and weights was noted, suggesting measurement or data-entry errors. Our work suggests that the CDW, over time and through validation, has become a generally reliable source of anthropometric data. Researchers should assess the reliability of data contained within any source and apply strategies to minimize the impact of data errors appropriate to their study population.

Obesity diagnosis and care practices in the Veterans Health Administration.

BACKGROUND: In response to dramatic increases in obesity prevalence, clinical guidelines urge health care providers to prevent and treat obesity more aggressively. OBJECTIVE: To describe the proportion of obese primary care patients receiving obesity care over a 5-year period and identify factors predicting receipt of care. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study utilizing VHA administrative data from 6 of 21 VA administrative regions. PATIENTS: Veterans seen in primary care in FY2002 with a body mass index (BMI) > or =30 kg/m(2) based on heights and weights recorded in the electronic medical record (EMR), survival through FY2006, and active care (1 or more visits in at least 3 follow-up years FY2003-2006). MAIN MEASURES: Receipt of outpatient visits for individual or group education or instruction in nutrition, exercise, or weight management; receipt of prescriptions for any FDA-approved medications for weight reduction; and receipt of bariatric surgery. KEY RESULTS: Of 933,084 (88.6%) of 1,053,228 primary care patients who had recorded heights and weights allowing calculation of BMI, 330,802 (35.5%) met criteria for obesity. Among obese patients who survived and received active care (N = 264,667), 53.5% had a recorded obesity diagnosis, 34.1% received at least one outpatient visit for obesity-related education or counseling, 0.4% received weight-loss medications, and 0.2% had bariatric surgery between FY2002-FY2006. In multivariable analysis, patients older than 65 years (OR = 0.62; 95% CI: 0.60-0.64) were less likely to receive obesity-related education, whereas those prescribed 5-7 or 8 or more medication classes (OR = 1.41; 1.38-1.45; OR = 1.94; 1.88-2.00, respectively) or diagnosed with obesity (OR = 4.0; 3.92-4.08) or diabetes (OR = 2.23; 2.18-2.27) were more likely to receive obesity-related education. CONCLUSIONS: Substantial numbers of VHA primary care patients did not have sufficient height or weight data recorded to calculate BMI or have recorded obesity diagnoses when warranted. Receipt of obesity education varied by sociodemographic and clinical factors; providers may need to be cognizant of these when engaging patients in treatment.

Collaborative depression care for the old-old: findings from the IMPACT trial.

OBJECTIVES: To compare the clinical outcomes of young-old patients (aged 60-74 years) and old-old patients (aged 75 years and older) who received collaborative care management for depression. DESIGN: Multisite randomized clinical trial. SETTING: Eighteen primary care clinics from eight healthcare organizations. PARTICIPANTS: Nine hundred six patients (N = 606 young-old; N = 300 old-old) with major depression and/or dysthymia who were randomized to receive collaborative care in the Improving Mood: Promoting Access to Collaborative Treatment trial. INTERVENTION: Patients had access for 12 months to a depression clinical specialist who coordinated depression care with their primary care physician. MEASUREMENTS: Young-old and old-old patients were compared on process of care and outcome variables. Process of care was determined by the type of treatment and level of care received. Clinical outcomes included Symptom Checklist (SCL)-20 depression scores, treatment response (defined as a >or=50% decrease in the SCL-20 score from baseline), and complete remission (defined as a SCL-20 score <0.5) at 3-, 6-, 12-, 18-, and 24-month follow-up. RESULTS: The process of care variables did not significantly differ between the two age groups. Young-old patients had similar treatment responses at initial follow-up (3 months) but were significantly more likely to respond to treatment and meet complete remission criteria than old-old patients at 6-, 12-, 18-, and 24-months. CONCLUSIONS: Young-old and old-old patients who receive collaborative depression care have a similar initial clinical response, but old-old patients may have a lower rate of long-term treatment response and complete remission in the long run.

The challenges of multimorbidity from the patient perspective.

BACKGROUND: Although multiple co-occurring chronic illnesses within the same individual are increasingly common, few studies have examined the challenges of multimorbidity from the patient perspective. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to examine the self-management learning needs and willingness to see non-physician providers of patients with multimorbidity compared to patients with single chronic illnesses. DESIGN: This research is designed as a cross-sectional survey. PARTICIPANTS: Based upon ICD-9 codes, patients from a single VHA healthcare system were stratified into multimorbidity clusters or groups with a single chronic illness from the corresponding cluster. Nonproportional sampling was used to randomly select 720 patients. MEASUREMENTS: Demographic characteristics, functional status, number of contacts with healthcare providers, components of primary care, self-management learning needs, and willingness to see nonphysician providers. RESULTS: Four hundred twenty-two patients returned surveys. A higher percentage of multimorbidity patients compared to single morbidity patients were "definitely" willing to learn all 22 self-management skills, of these only 2 were not significant. Compared to patients with single morbidity, a significantly higher percentage of patients with multimorbidity also reported that they were "definitely" willing to see 6 of 11 non-physician healthcare providers. CONCLUSIONS: Self-management learning needs of multimorbidity patients are extensive, and their preferences are consistent with team-based primary care. Alternative methods of providing support and chronic illness care may be needed to meet the needs of these complex patients.

Primary care attributes, health care system hassles, and chronic illness.

BACKGROUND: Patients with a chronic illness are likely to report difficulties in their encounters with the health care system. Although most patients with a chronic illness are managed by primary care clinicians, little is known about how the attributes of primary care might be related to health care system hassles. OBJECTIVE: We sought to examine the relationship between attributes of primary care and health care system hassles among veterans with one or more chronic illnesses. RESEARCH DESIGN: This was a cross-sectional mailed survey. SUBJECTS: We included veterans with one or more chronic illnesses who were cared for in the South Texas Veteran's health care system. MEASURES: The Components of Primary Care Instrument was used to measure 4 attributes of primary care: accumulated knowledge of the patient by the clinician, coordination of care, communication, and preference for first contact with their primary care clinician. A 16-item health care systems hassles scale was constructed and demonstrated good face validity and reliability with a Cronbach's alpha of 0.94. RESULTS: Of the 720 surveys administered by mail, 422 (59%) were returned. Patients with multiple chronic illnesses reported a higher level of hassles than patients with a single chronic illness. After controlling for patient characteristics, primary care communication and coordination of care were inversely associated with patient hassles score: as communication and coordination improved, the reported level of hassles decreased. CONCLUSIONS: Effective delivery of primary care to patients with one or more chronic illnesses may be important in decreasing the level of hassles they experience as they interact with the health care delivery system.

Treatment of depression improves physical functioning in older adults.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the effect of collaborative care management for depression on physical functioning in older adults. DESIGN: Multisite randomized clinical trial. SETTING: Eighteen primary care clinics from eight healthcare organizations. PARTICIPANTS: One thousand eight hundred one patients aged 60 and older with major depressive disorder. INTERVENTION: Patients were randomized to the Improving Mood: Promoting Access to Collaborative Treatment (IMPACT) intervention (n=906) or to a control group receiving usual care (n=895). Control patients had access to all health services available as part of usual care. Intervention patients had access for 12 months to a depression clinical specialist who coordinated depression care with their primary care physician. MEASUREMENTS: The 12-item short form Physical Component Summary (PCS) score (range 0-100) and instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) (range 0-7). RESULTS: The mean patient age was 71.2, 65% were women, and 77% were white. At baseline, the mean PCS was 40.2, and the mean number of IADL dependencies was 0.7; 45% of participants rated their health as fair or poor. Intervention patients experienced significantly better physical functioning at 1 year than usual-care patients as measured using between-group differences on the PCS of 1.71 (95% confidence interval (CI)=0.96-2.46) and IADLs of -0.15 (95% CI=-0.29 to -0.01). Intervention patients were also less likely to rate their health as fair or poor (37.3% vs 52.4%, P<.001). Combining both study groups, patients whose depression improved were more likely to experience improvement in physical functioning. CONCLUSION: The IMPACT collaborative care model for late-life depression improves physical function more than usual care.

Adherence to mental health treatment in a primary care clinic.

BACKGROUND: Patient nonadherence is common for the standard mental health treatments in primary care: antidepressants and referrals to specialty mental health treatment. This is one of few studies to prospectively identify predictors of nonadherence. METHODS: We observed 95 veterans attending an internal medicine clinic prescribed antidepressant medication or referred to mental health treatment. We collected information on sociodemographic factors, health beliefs, preferences about treatment, past experiences, and treatment knowledge. RESULTS: At 1 month, medication adherence was greater when patients experienced previous pharmacy trouble and traveled for less than 30 minutes to reach the clinic. Appointment attendance improved when patients were ready for treatment, perceived benefits, and saw their physician as collaborative. At 6 months, medication adherence was greater when patients reported a preference for medicine treatment, traveled for less than 30 minutes, and perceived greater benefits. Fewer negative effects from previous mental health treatment improved adherence to appointments. In multivariate analyses examining adherence to all treatments, greater readiness for treatment predicted 1-month adherence, whereas being unmarried and seeing the physician as more collaborative improved 6-month adherence. CONCLUSIONS: Adherence to antidepressant medications and to mental health referrals should be examined separately. A brief initial assessment for nonadherence risk factors may identify persons for targeted adherence promoting interventions.

Collaborative care needs and preferences of primary care patients with multimorbidity.

OBJECTIVE To explore the collaborative care needs and preferences in primary care patients with multiple chronic illnesses. DESIGN Focus groups utilizing a series of open-ended questions elicited self-identified problems, experiences in communicating with providers, self-management needs, and preferences for monitoring and follow-up. Responses were organized and interpreted in light of the essential elements of collaborative care for chronic illness. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Sixty patients having two or more chronic illnesses at eight geographically dispersed primary care clinics within the Veterans Health Administration in the United States. RESULTS Identified problems included poor functioning, negative psychological reactions, negative effects on relationships and interference with work or leisure. Polypharmacy was a major concern. Problematic interactions with providers and the health care system were also mentioned, often in relation to specialty care and included incidents in which providers had ignored concerns or provided conflicting advice. Most participants, however, expressed overall satisfaction with their care and appreciation of their primary care physicians. Knowledge and skills deficits interfered with self-management. Participants were willing to use technology for monitoring or educational purposes if it did not preclude human contact, and were receptive to non-physician providers as long as they were used to augment, not eliminate, a physician's care. CONCLUSIONS Findings are consistent with the basic tenets of patient-centred, collaborative care, and suggested that health care can be organized and delivered to meet the complex needs of patients with multimorbidity.

Impact of comorbid panic and posttraumatic stress disorder on outcomes of collaborative care for late-life depression in primary care.

OBJECTIVE: Comorbid anxiety disorders may result in worse depression treatment outcomes. The authors evaluated the effect of comorbid panic disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) on response to a collaborative-care intervention for late-life depression in primary care. METHODS: A total of 1,801 older adults with depression were randomized to a collaborative-care depression treatment model versus usual care and assessed at baseline, 3, 6, and 12 months, comparing differences among participants with comorbid panic disorder (N=262) and PTSD (N=191) and those without such comorbid anxiety disorders. RESULTS: At baseline, patients with comorbid anxiety reported higher levels of psychiatric and medical illness, greater functional impairment, and lower quality of life. Participants without comorbid anxiety who received collaborative care had early and lasting improvements in depression compared with those in usual care. Participants with comorbid panic disorder showed similar outcomes, whereas those with comorbid PTSD showed a more delayed response, requiring 12 months of intervention to show a significant effect. At 12 months, however, outcomes were comparable. Interactions of intervention status by comorbid PTSD or panic disorder were not statistically significant, suggesting that the collaborative-care model performed significantly better than usual care in depressed older adults both with and without comorbid anxiety. CONCLUSIONS: Collaborative care is more effective than usual care for depressed older adults with and without comorbid panic disorder and PTSD, although a sustained treatment response was slower to emerge for participants with PTSD. Intensive and prolonged follow-up may be needed for depressed older adults with comorbid PTSD.

Depression and comorbid illness in elderly primary care patients: impact on multiple domains of health status and well-being.

PURPOSE: Our objective was to examine the relative association of depression severity and chronicity, other comorbid psychiatric conditions, and coexisting medical illnesses with multiple domains of health status among primary care patients with clinical depression. METHODS: We collected cross-sectional data as part of a treatment effectiveness trial that was conducted in 8 diverse health care organizations. Patients aged 60 years and older (N = 1,801) who met diagnostic criteria for major depression or dysthymia participated in a baseline survey. A survey instrument included questions on sociodemographic characteristics, depression severity and chronicity, neuroticism, and the presence of 11 common chronic medical illnesses, as well as questions screening for panic disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder. Measures of 4 general health indicators (physical and mental component scales of the SF-12, Sheehan Disability Index, and global quality of life) were included. We conducted separate mixed-effect regression linear models predicting each of the 4 general health indicators. RESULTS: Depression severity was significantly associated with all 4 indicators of general health after controlling for sociodemographic differences, other psychological dysfunction, and the presence of 11 chronic medical conditions. Although study participants had an average of 3.8 chronic medical illnesses, depression severity made larger independent contributions to 3 of the 4 general health indicators (mental functional status, disability, and quality of life) than the medical comorbidities. CONCLUSIONS: Recognition and treatment of depression has the potential to improve functioning and quality of life in spite of the presence of other medical comorbidities.

Depression treatment in a sample of 1,801 depressed older adults in primary care.

OBJECTIVES: To examine rates and predictors of lifetime and recent depression treatment in a sample of 1,801 depressed older primary care patients DESIGN: Cross sectional survey data collected from 1999 to 2001 as part of a treatment effectiveness trial. SETTING: Eighteen primary care clinics belonging to eight organizations in five states. PARTICIPANTS: One thousand eight hundred one clinic users aged 60 and older who met diagnostic criteria for major depression or dysthymia. MEASUREMENTS: Lifetime depression treatment was defined as ever having received a prescription medication, counseling, or psychotherapy for depression. Potentially effective recent depression treatment was defined as 2 or more months of antidepressant medications or four or more sessions of counseling or psychotherapy for depression in the past 3 months. RESULTS: The mean age +/- standard deviation was 71.2 +/- 7.5; 65% of subjects were women. Twenty-three percent of the sample came from ethnic minority groups (12% were African American, 8% were Latino, and 3% belonged to other ethnic minorities). The median household income was $23,000. Most study participants (83%) reported depressive symptoms for 2 or more years, and most (71%) reported two or more prior depressive episodes. About 65% reported any lifetime depression treatment, and 46% reported some depression treatment in the past 3 months, although only 29% reported potentially effective recent depression treatment. Most of the treatment provided consisted of antidepressant medications, with newer antidepressants such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors constituting the majority (78%) of antidepressants used. Most participants indicated a preference for counseling or psychotherapy over antidepressant medications, but only 8% had received such treatment in the past 3 months, and only 1% reported four or more sessions of counseling. Men, African Americans, Latinos, those without two or more prior episodes of depression, and those who preferred counseling to antidepressant medications reported significantly lower rates of depression care. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that there is considerable opportunity to improve care for older adults with depression. Particular efforts should be focused on improving access to depression care for older men, African Americans, Latinos, and patients who prefer treatments other than antidepressants.

Stage of change advancement for diabetes self-management behaviors and glucose control.

PURPOSE: This study was conducted to evaluate whether patients with type 2 diabetes who participated in diabetes education advanced through stages of change for self-management behaviors and to determine if movement was related to glucose control. METHODS: A cohort of 428 patients with type 2 diabetes participated in a traditional diabetes education program in a large urban center in the Southwest. The sample was predominantly female with less than a high school education, a mean age of 52 years, and a mean duration of diabetes of 7 years. Two interviews were conducted approximately 9 months apart, at 1 to 4 weeks before the educational program and at 6 months after completing it. Blood specimens were collected at each interview to measure hemoglobin A1C (A1C) levels. RESULTS: Most of the patients advanced 1 or more stages of change for at least 1 self-management behavior. Those with diabetes for less than 2 years were significantly more likely to advance at least 1 stage of change for diet and exercise than those with diabetes for more than 2 years. Such advancement was significantly associated with a decline in A1C. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with type 2 diabetes who participated in diabetes education advanced through stages of change for self-care behaviors. The intervention was more effective for those with a shorter duration of diabetes.